Unconventional warfare: emerging threats and national security challenges

On December 30, 2024, Defence Minister Rajnath Singh while addressing a gathering of senior Army officers at the Army War College in Mhow, Madhya Pradesh, highlighted the paradigm shift in global military and geopolitical dynamics and evolving nature of warfare wherein conventional forms of warfare are no longer the sole mode of conflict.

The Minister specifically pointed out the “unconventional methods” of warfare, such as information warfare, AI-based warfare, proxy warfare, electromagnetic warfare, space warfare, cyber-attacks, and hybrid warfare, which pose a significant challenge to India’s national security.

Unconventional methods of warfare include strategies and tactics to exploit the enemy’s vulnerabilities, create confusion, disruption, and long-term effects. These unconventional methods extend beyond physical combat and often blur the lines between war, and politics. Some examples unconventional warfare consist of:

Information or perception warfare and fake news

Information warfare refers to the use of information as a weapon to influence, disrupt, or manipulate the perception of people, governments, or organizations. In an age of information overload, the ability to control the flow of information has become a strategic asset for nations. These tactics exploit the media, social networks, and communication channels to spread false or misleading information to cause confusion, distrust, and division. False or misleading information can create confusion, divide populations, or manipulate public opinion. This can destabilize societies or create internal dissent within the enemy’s ranks.

Information warfare and fake news are powerful tools that can significantly influence public opinion, disrupt societies, and even alter the course of history. Today information warfare is a growing trend in global military strategy, where battles are no longer fought solely on the battlefield, but also in the digital and informational domains. Disinformation campaigns, fake news, propaganda, and psychological operations (psyops) are increasingly being used by state and non-state actors to destabilize governments, influence elections, and manipulate public opinion.

Psychological operations (PsyOps) are a military and political tool used to influence the emotions, attitudes, and behaviors of a target audience. This can include deploying propaganda (one-sided or biased information designed to shape opinions) and using techniques to undermine an enemy’s morale or legitimacy.

Cognitive warfare refers to efforts to directly influence how people think and perceive reality by altering their cognitive processes. It includes shaping individuals’ beliefs, biases, and decisions through the use of information manipulation and disinformation.

Deepfakes are synthetic media (images, videos, or audio) created using AI and machine learning technologies to alter or fabricate content, making it appear real. Deepfakes can be used to create fake video or audio recordings of political figures or events that never occurred, further distorting public perception and spreading misinformation.

Echo chambers and filter bubbles refer to online environments where people are exposed only to information that confirms their existing beliefs and are shielded from information that challenges those beliefs. These digital environments can be amplified by social media algorithms and create polarized, fragmented societies.

Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and TikTok can play a central role in the spread of fake news by quickly reaching millions of people within hours. Their ability to rapidly disseminate information, along with algorithms that amplify emotionally charged or sensational content, makes them powerful tools for both misinformation and manipulation.

Guerrilla Warfare 

Unlike conventional warfare, where two armies face off directly, guerrilla or irregular warfare tactics rely on ambush, sabotage, or hit-and-run attacks and quickly withdraw before the enemy can respond effectively. The objective is not necessarily to win conventional battles but to erode the enemy’s will and capability to fight using surprise, stealth, and flexibility. Guerrilla fighters tend to have intimate knowledge of the local terrain, allowing them to utilize natural cover and evade detection. Guerrilla warfare has been employed throughout history by insurgents, resistance movements, and weaker forces facing more powerful adversaries.

In the modern era, guerrilla warfare continues to be used by non-state actors, insurgent groups, and terrorist organizations. Technology, such as smartphones for communication and social media for propaganda, has added new dimensions to guerrilla tactics. Cyber warfare, sabotage of infrastructure, and use of drones are some of the newer forms of asymmetric warfare employed today.

Psychological warfare

This method refers to the use of propaganda, disinformation, and manipulation to influence the morale and decision-making of the enemy. Psychological warfare techniques include spreading rumours, creating confusion, or causing fear to undermine the opponent’s will to fight.  Propaganda can include leaflets, radio broadcasts, social media campaigns, and even fake news. Some of the examples of this form of warfare include creating fake military units, spreading information about fake plans, or deploying misleading signals to dissuade the enemy from continuing their fight. This can be done through strategic communication, such as broadcasting the strength or success of the attacking force or undermining the confidence of the enemy in their leadership.

In recent conflicts, psychological warfare has evolved into the cyber domain. State and non-state actors now use social media, hacking, and digital propaganda to spread disinformation, influence elections, or destabilize political environments. Russian interference in the 2016 U.S. presidential election is a notable example of the use of cyber tools for psychological manipulation.

The rise of social media platforms has transformed the landscape of psychological warfare. Both state and non-state actors now use digital platforms to spread targeted disinformation, incite violence, or manipulate public opinion

Cyber Warfare

Cyber warfare refers to the use of digital attacks, hacking, or other cyber techniques to disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorized access to the computer systems, networks, and data of an adversary, typically in the context of armed conflict or geopolitical competition. Cyber operations can disable key infrastructure, spreading panic, and disrupt critical services like banking, healthcare, or transportation systems. The use of hacking, malware, and other digital tools to disrupt enemy infrastructure, steal sensitive information, or incapacitate critical systems. Cyberattacks can target military, government, or private sector systems to create chaos or manipulate outcomes.

The Stuxnet worm is one of the most famous examples of cyber warfare. It was a highly sophisticated piece of malware designed to target and sabotage Iran’s nuclear enrichment facilities. Believed to be a joint operation by the United States and Israel, Stuxnet caused physical damage to centrifuges, setting back Iran’s nuclear program for years. SolarWinds Hack (2020) too was a sophisticated cyber espionage campaign, believed to be carried out by Russian state-sponsored hackers, targeted U.S. government agencies and private companies. Hackers compromised the SolarWinds software update system, gaining access to sensitive data from key sectors like defence, energy, and technology.

Cyber warfare is a rapidly evolving domain that has reshaped the landscape of modern conflict. With the increasing reliance on digital technologies for almost every aspect of daily life, the potential for cyberattacks to disrupt societies and economies is vast. As such, cybersecurity is becoming an integral part of national defense strategies, and the ability to defend against or retaliate in cyber warfare will continue to be a key element in the geopolitics of the future.

Biological Warfare

Biological warfare involves the use of biological agents—such as bacteria, viruses, or toxins—to intentionally harm or kill humans, animals, or plants, and cause widespread disruption. It is one of the most dangerous forms of unconventional warfare due to its potential for mass casualties, long-term environmental effects, and difficulty in controlling its spread once deployed. Biological weapons are often considered weapons of mass destruction (WMD), like chemical and nuclear weapons. Though banned under international law, it has been used in certain historical contexts to undermine opponents without conventional battle. Both the Axis and Allied powers conducted research into biological weapons during WWII. The Japanese military, particularly Unit 731, famously conducted horrific experiments on prisoners of war and civilians using biological agents like plague, anthrax, and cholera. The U.S. also developed biological weapons during this time, including anthrax and botulinum toxin, but never used them in combat.

One of the most notable incidents was the U.S. Army’s Operation Whitecoat, which tested biological agents on military personnel in controlled environments. The program was officially halted in 1969 under President Richard Nixon.

Biological warfare remains one of the most feared and controversial forms of warfare due to its potential for mass casualties, long-term health impacts, and widespread environmental destruction.

Economic Warfare

Economic warfare refers to the use of economic means and measures by one country (or group of countries) to weaken, destabilize, or harm the economy of an adversary. It involves leveraging economic tools—such as sanctions, trade restrictions, blockades, and manipulation of markets—to exert pressure and disrupt an enemy’s ability to function effectively.

Economic warfare can be employed during times of war, in pre-conflict situations, or as part of long-term geopolitical competition, and it is often used in conjunction with military or diplomatic strategies. Unlike traditional military warfare, which involves the use of physical force, economic warfare targets the financial, trade, and industrial sectors of an adversary to undermine their strength and capacity for warfare.

Economic warfare is sometimes combined with propaganda or disinformation campaigns to destabilise an adversary’s domestic economy. Spreading false information or rumours about a country’s financial instability can lead to panic, capital flight, or loss of investor confidence. Spreading rumours or misinformation that leads people to withdraw their money from banks, exchange currency, or create a run on assets can cause significant harm to a country’s financial system.

Before and during World War II, the United States and its allies imposed economic sanctions on Nazi Germany to limit its access to critical resources, such as oil, steel, and food. This was part of an effort to slow Germany’s military buildup and limit its war-making capacity. Britain imposed blockade on Germany preventing vital supplies from reaching Germany to weaken their economy during both the World Wars.

Economic warfare is a powerful and increasingly common tool in the arsenal of modern geopolitical strategies. It can be used to destabilize adversaries, enforce political or military objectives, and shift the balance of power without resorting to physical conflict.

Weaponization of the Environment

This form of warfare involves attempting to alter atmospheric conditions to gain a strategic advantage, disrupt an adversary’s economy, or cause environmental distress. This includes the use of techniques such as cloud seeding, weather modification, and attempts to control rainfall patterns. While weather manipulation remains largely theoretical in military terms, there has been ongoing research into its potential uses. Cloud seeding is the process of dispersing substances (e.g., silver iodide) into clouds to encourage precipitation. In theory, it could be used to create rainstorms or induce droughts in specific regions to disrupt agriculture, cause flooding, or hinder military operations.

Ecological warfare 

It involves the deliberate introduction or spread of invasive species, plant diseases, or other biological agents into an adversary’s environment to disrupt agriculture, forestry, and ecosystems.

The deliberate release of oil into oceans or waterways can damage marine ecosystems, disrupt fishing industries, and create long-lasting environmental harm. During the Gulf War (1990–1991), Iraqi forces set fire to oil wells and dumped oil into the Persian Gulf to sabotage the region’s economic resources.

During the Vietnam War the U.S. military used Agent Orange as part of its herbicidal warfare strategy. The herbicide was sprayed over large areas of Vietnam to defoliate forests and destroy crops, thus denying the Viet Cong the ability to use these resources for cover and sustenance. The long-term environmental damage from Agent Orange continues to impact human health and ecosystems in the region.

The weaponization of the environment poses serious risks not only to human populations but also to global ecosystems, creating long-term environmental damage that can affect generations to come.

Proxy Warfare 

Proxy war refers to a conflict in which two or more opposing powers use third parties (proxy forces) to fight on their behalf instead of directly engaging in battle with each other. These proxy forces are often local militias, rebel groups, or foreign militaries that receive support from external powers, such as financial aid, weapons, training, or other resources. Proxy warfare has been a significant feature of modern conflicts, especially in regions where great power rivalries are played out indirectly.

Proxy warfare remains an essential and enduring strategy in modern conflicts, particularly where direct confrontation is politically or militarily undesirable. It allows external powers to influence conflicts without risking open war, but it also comes with significant risks, including escalation, humanitarian crises, and long-term regional instability. While it may seem like a way to pursue strategic goals with limited cost, the complexity and unpredictability of proxy warfare often make it a double-edged sword.

Electromagnetic Warfare

It is a form of modern warfare that focuses on the use of electromagnetic spectrum (EMS) to disrupt, deny, degrade, or manipulate the electronic systems of an adversary. The electromagnetic spectrum includes a range of frequencies used for various communication, radar, navigation, and sensing systems. By gaining control over or disrupting an opponent’s ability to use this spectrum, electromagnetic warfare can cripple their military or civilian infrastructure, degrade operational capabilities, and provide a significant tactical advantage.

Electromagnetic warfare has been a key aspect of the ongoing conflict in Ukraine. Russia has employed electronic warfare capabilities to jam Ukrainian military communications and radar systems, while Ukraine has used electronic countermeasures to defend against these disruptions. Both sides have also used drones and cyberattacks in combination with EMW tactics to gain battlefield advantage. Russian jamming of GPS signals has been reported throughout the conflict, which has impacted navigation systems for both military and civilian aircraft in Ukrainian airspace.

Electromagnetic warfare is an increasingly essential component of modern military strategy, particularly as reliance on electronic systems continues to grow. By disrupting or denying an adversary’s use of the electromagnetic spectrum, forces can achieve significant operational advantages. However, the complexity of managing the electromagnetic environment and the potential for escalation make this type of warfare both a powerful tool and a significant challenge in contemporary conflicts. As technology advances, electromagnetic warfare will continue to evolve, shaping the future of both conventional and hybrid warfare.

Cultural Warfare

It refers to the use of culture as a tool of conflict, where cultural symbols, narratives, and identities are manipulated to influence or control the minds of individuals, societies, or entire nations. It involves efforts to shape, distort, or erode cultural identity and values in a way that benefits one side of a conflict. Cultural warfare may be employed by governments, insurgent groups, or other actors to advance political, social, or ideological objectives through the strategic use of cultural tools like media, education, religion, art, and public discourse.

Cultural warfare can target the very fabric of a society’s traditions, beliefs, and values, undermining the moral cohesion of a population, creating divisions, or fostering ideological conformity. This type of warfare can be subtle, long-lasting, and difficult to trace, as it often operates in the realm of ideas and perceptions rather than on the battlefield.

Non-Lethal Weapons

Non-lethal weapons (NLWs), such as directed energy weapons, sonic devices, or chemical agents are designed to incapacitate, disorient, or deter individuals or groups without causing death or permanent injury. The goal of non-lethal weapons is to provide a means of controlling or neutralizing threats while minimizing the risk of fatal outcomes.

Non-lethal weapons offer a range of advantages in situations where the use of lethal force is undesirable or impractical. They provide valuable tools for military, law enforcement, and peacekeeping forces in handling sensitive situations, such as crowd control, hostage rescues, or peacekeeping operations. However, their use is not without risks, and careful consideration must be given to the potential for misuse, unintended harm, and the ethical implications of deploying such weapons. As technology evolves, the development and use of non-lethal weapons will continue to shape the landscape of modern conflict, providing both opportunities and challenges.

Space Warfare

It refers to the use or threat of use of space-based systems, assets, or technologies to achieve military objectives in or through space. It involves the strategic application of capabilities to affect, deny, disrupt, or destroy the space assets of adversaries, often with the intention of gaining military superiority or strategic advantage. Space warfare could also extend to protecting one’s own space assets, such as satellites, and ensuring control over space-based systems that support national security, communications, navigation, weather forecasting, and intelligence operations.

Space warfare represents a rapidly evolving frontier in military strategy. In recent times space has become increasingly essential to modern military operations and national security. The U.S., Russia, China, and other spacefaring nations have recognized space as a domain of warfare, and there are growing concerns about the militarization and weaponization of space.

Hybrid Warfare and Greyzone Conflicts

It’s a New Kind of Warfare characterized by the blending of conventional and unconventional methods to achieve strategic objectives. Hybrid Warfare and Greyzone Conflicts represent modern, complex strategies of conflict that combine conventional military tactics with irregular, non-military methods. These forms of warfare blur the lines between peace and war, leveraging a wide array of tools to achieve strategic objectives without triggering a full-scale, traditional conflict. Both hybrid warfare and greyzone conflicts are designed to exploit vulnerabilities in an adversary’s political, economic, social, and military systems, making them difficult to counter using conventional methods.

For India, hybrid warfare and grey zone conflicts pose a challenge because of ongoing border tensions with China and Pakistan, as well as the insurgencies in Kashmir and the northeast. To respond effectively, India needs to develop a nuanced and multi-pronged strategy that blends military readiness with diplomatic, economic, and informational tools to counter hybrid warfare effectively.

Conclusion: Preparing for the Unconventional Future

Rajnath Singh’s remarks about the unconventional methods of warfare highlight the complex and evolving security challenges that India faces. To effectively counter these emerging threats, India must undergo a paradigm shift in its defence strategies, emphasizing the integration of advanced technologies, cyber resilience, and information warfare capabilities.

This means that India’s armed forces must evolve beyond traditional military strategies and adapt to the new realities of warfare in the 21st century. This will require a concerted effort at all levels of government, a substantial investment in research and development, and the building of strategic partnerships with like-minded nations to collectively address these challenges. Only through such comprehensive preparedness can India safeguard its sovereignty, protect its interests, and ensure its place as a leading power in the global security architecture.